Amphibians – Life Between Water and Land.
Amphibians – Life Between Water
and Land.
Amphibians –
Life Between Water
and Land.
Amphibians show a remarkable diversity of life cycles. Aquatic larvae are considered the ancestral condition in frogs, salamanders, and caecilians and are still retained by many living species. Other lineages have evolved alternative strategies, including direct development, in which the free-living larval stage is lost.¹
In frogs, metamorphosis involves coordinated morphological and biochemical changes throughout the larval body. Thyroid hormones, together with corticosteroid signaling, play a central role in regulating this post-embryonic transition.²
Amphibians show a remarkable diversity of life cycles. Aquatic larvae are considered the ancestral condition in frogs, salamanders, and caecilians and are still retained by many living species. Other lineages have evolved alternative strategies, including direct development, in which the free-living larval stage is lost.¹
In frogs, metamorphosis involves coordinated morphological and biochemical changes throughout the larval body. Thyroid hormones, together with corticosteroid signaling, play a central role in regulating this post-embryonic transition.²
Amphibians show a remarkable diversity of life cycles. Aquatic larvae are considered the ancestral condition in frogs, salamanders, and caecilians and are still retained by many living species. Other lineages have evolved alternative strategies, including direct development, in which the free-living larval stage is lost.¹
In frogs, metamorphosis involves coordinated morphological and biochemical changes throughout the larval body. Thyroid hormones, together with corticosteroid signaling, play a central role in regulating this post-embryonic transition.²
metamorphosis.
metamorphosis.
metamorphosis.
During metamorphosis, the moor frog (Rana arvalis) undergoes a sequence of visible changes that transforms the tadpole into a froglet. During the late larval stages, the body increasingly takes on the posture and external characteristics of the juvenile frog.³
The emergence of the forelimbs marks the beginning of the final phase of metamorphosis. As development continues, the tail is gradually resorbed until the juvenile froglet form is reached.⁴
These visible changes are part of a much broader reorganization of the body. In anurans, metamorphosis involves morphological and biochemical remodeling across larval tissues, coordinated to a large extent by thyroid-hormone and corticosteroid signaling.²
During metamorphosis, the moor frog (Rana arvalis) undergoes a sequence of visible changes that transforms the tadpole into a froglet. During the late larval stages, the body increasingly takes on the posture and external characteristics of the juvenile frog.³
The emergence of the forelimbs marks the beginning of the final phase of metamorphosis. As development continues, the tail is gradually resorbed until the juvenile froglet form is reached.⁴
These visible changes are part of a much broader reorganization of the body. In anurans, metamorphosis involves morphological and biochemical remodeling across larval tissues, coordinated to a large extent by thyroid-hormone and corticosteroid signaling.²
During metamorphosis, the moor frog (Rana arvalis) undergoes a sequence of visible changes that transforms the tadpole into a froglet. During the late larval stages, the body increasingly takes on the posture and external characteristics of the juvenile frog.³
The emergence of the forelimbs marks the beginning of the final phase of metamorphosis. As development continues, the tail is gradually resorbed until the juvenile froglet form is reached.⁴
These visible changes are part of a much broader reorganization of the body. In anurans, metamorphosis involves morphological and biochemical remodeling across larval tissues, coordinated to a large extent by thyroid-hormone and corticosteroid signaling.²
frog morphology.
frog morphology.
frog morphology.
Frogs have a highly specialized body plan that differs markedly from that of many other vertebrates. Typical features include a shortened axial skeleton, elongated hind limbs and extensive modifications of the pelvis and limbs associated with locomotion in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.⁵
Frogs have a highly specialized body plan that differs markedly from that of many other vertebrates. Typical features include a shortened axial skeleton, elongated hind limbs and extensive modifications of the pelvis and limbs associated with locomotion in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.⁵
Frogs have a highly specialized body plan that differs markedly from that of many other vertebrates. Typical features include a shortened axial skeleton, elongated hind limbs and extensive modifications of the pelvis and limbs associated with locomotion in both aquatic and terrestrial environments.⁵
Skeleton.
Skeleton.
Skeleton.
The frog skeleton is strongly modified for locomotion. The vertebral column is shortened, while the pelvis includes elongated ilia and a urostyle, a characteristic structure of adult frogs.⁵ The hind limbs contain several specializations associated with jumping, while the forelimbs also help distribute the forces generated during landing.⁶
The frog skeleton is strongly modified for locomotion. The vertebral column is shortened, while the pelvis includes elongated ilia and a urostyle, a characteristic structure of adult frogs.⁵ The hind limbs contain several specializations associated with jumping, while the forelimbs also help distribute the forces generated during landing.⁶
The frog skeleton is strongly modified for locomotion. The vertebral column is shortened, while the pelvis includes elongated ilia and a urostyle, a characteristic structure of adult frogs.⁵ The hind limbs contain several specializations associated with jumping, while the forelimbs also help distribute the forces generated during landing.⁶
Internal anatomy.
Internal anatomy.
Internal anatomy.
Inside the body, several organ systems reflect the distinctive physiology of amphibians. Adult frogs use paired lungs for pulmonary respiration, but gas exchange also occurs through the skin; the relative contribution of these respiratory surfaces can change with environmental and physiological conditions.⁷ Frogs also possess the characteristic amphibian three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria and a single ventricle.⁸
Inside the body, several organ systems reflect the distinctive physiology of amphibians. Adult frogs use paired lungs for pulmonary respiration, but gas exchange also occurs through the skin; the relative contribution of these respiratory surfaces can change with environmental and physiological conditions.⁷ Frogs also possess the characteristic amphibian three-chambered heart, consisting of two atria and a single ventricle.⁸
species profiles.
species profiles.
species profiles.
Moor Frog (Rana arvalis)
Moor Frog (Rana arvalis)
Moor Frog (Rana arvalis)
The moor frog is a Eurasian species found across large parts of northern and central Europe and extending eastwards into Siberia. It is closely associated with wet habitats such as marshes, wet meadows, fens and floodplain forests.⁹ During the brief breeding period, males can develop a striking blue coloration that lasts only a few days. Experimental studies suggest that this temporary coloration helps males distinguish rivals from potential mates in dense breeding aggregations.¹⁰
The moor frog is a Eurasian species found across large parts of northern and central Europe and extending eastwards into Siberia. It is closely associated with wet habitats such as marshes, wet meadows, fens and floodplain forests.⁹ During the brief breeding period, males can develop a striking blue coloration that lasts only a few days. Experimental studies suggest that this temporary coloration helps males distinguish rivals from potential mates in dense breeding aggregations.¹⁰
The moor frog is a Eurasian species found across large parts of northern and central Europe and extending eastwards into Siberia. It is closely associated with wet habitats such as marshes, wet meadows, fens and floodplain forests.⁹ During the brief breeding period, males can develop a striking blue coloration that lasts only a few days. Experimental studies suggest that this temporary coloration helps males distinguish rivals from potential mates in dense breeding aggregations.¹⁰
Bolivian Glass Frog (Nymphargus bejaranoi)
Bolivian Glass Frog (Nymphargus bejaranoi)
Bolivian Glass Frog (Nymphargus bejaranoi)
The Bolivian glass frog is endemic to Bolivia, where it occurs in humid montane forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It lives at elevations of roughly 1,600–2,400 metres and is associated with vegetation near streams.⁹ Like other members of the genus Nymphargus, part of the ventral body wall is transparent, contributing to the characteristic appearance of glass frogs.¹¹ Studies of glass frogs more broadly show that translucency can reduce visual contrast against vegetation and improve camouflage.¹²
The Bolivian glass frog is endemic to Bolivia, where it occurs in humid montane forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It lives at elevations of roughly 1,600–2,400 metres and is associated with vegetation near streams.⁹ Like other members of the genus Nymphargus, part of the ventral body wall is transparent, contributing to the characteristic appearance of glass frogs.¹¹ Studies of glass frogs more broadly show that translucency can reduce visual contrast against vegetation and improve camouflage.¹²
The Bolivian glass frog is endemic to Bolivia, where it occurs in humid montane forests on the eastern slopes of the Andes. It lives at elevations of roughly 1,600–2,400 metres and is associated with vegetation near streams.⁹ Like other members of the genus Nymphargus, part of the ventral body wall is transparent, contributing to the characteristic appearance of glass frogs.¹¹ Studies of glass frogs more broadly show that translucency can reduce visual contrast against vegetation and improve camouflage.¹²
Red Headed Poison Frog (Ranitomeya fantastica)
Red Headed Poison Frog (Ranitomeya fantastica)
Red Headed Poison Frog (Ranitomeya fantastica)
The red-headed poison frog is endemic to northern Peru and occurs in the Cordillera Escalera region and adjacent lowlands.⁹ Ranitomeya fantastica shows remarkable geographic variation in coloration, with different populations displaying distinct combinations of red, orange, pale and dark markings. These conspicuous patterns form part of an aposematic warning system associated with chemical defence.¹³ Skin alkaloids have been documented in this species; like other chemically defended dendrobatids, these compounds are acquired from arthropod prey and sequestered in the body.¹⁴
The red-headed poison frog is endemic to northern Peru and occurs in the Cordillera Escalera region and adjacent lowlands.⁹ Ranitomeya fantastica shows remarkable geographic variation in coloration, with different populations displaying distinct combinations of red, orange, pale and dark markings. These conspicuous patterns form part of an aposematic warning system associated with chemical defence.¹³ Skin alkaloids have been documented in this species; like other chemically defended dendrobatids, these compounds are acquired from arthropod prey and sequestered in the body.¹⁴
The red-headed poison frog is endemic to northern Peru and occurs in the Cordillera Escalera region and adjacent lowlands.⁹ Ranitomeya fantastica shows remarkable geographic variation in coloration, with different populations displaying distinct combinations of red, orange, pale and dark markings. These conspicuous patterns form part of an aposematic warning system associated with chemical defence.¹³ Skin alkaloids have been documented in this species; like other chemically defended dendrobatids, these compounds are acquired from arthropod prey and sequestered in the body.¹⁴
ecological role.
ecological role.
Amphibians occupy important positions in food webs, acting as both consumers and prey and contributing to the movement of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.¹⁵ In species with aquatic larvae and terrestrial juveniles or adults, metamorphosis can also transfer biomass and nutrients from freshwater into surrounding terrestrial habitats, creating a direct ecological link between water and land.¹⁶
Many amphibians are also sensitive to environmental disturbance. Their permeable skin and, in many species, dependence on both aquatic and terrestrial habitats can make them vulnerable to changes in moisture, water quality, pollution, disease, and habitat availability. These characteristics have made amphibians widely used models and bioindicators in studies of environmental change.¹⁷
Amphibians occupy important positions in food webs, acting as both consumers and prey and contributing to the movement of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.¹⁵ In species with aquatic larvae and terrestrial juveniles or adults, metamorphosis can also transfer biomass and nutrients from freshwater into surrounding terrestrial habitats, creating a direct ecological link between water and land.¹⁶
Many amphibians are also sensitive to environmental disturbance. Their permeable skin and, in many species, dependence on both aquatic and terrestrial habitats can make them vulnerable to changes in moisture, water quality, pollution, disease, and habitat availability. These characteristics have made amphibians widely used models and bioindicators in studies of environmental change.¹⁷
Amphibians occupy important positions in food webs, acting as both consumers and prey and contributing to the movement of energy and nutrients through ecosystems.¹⁵ In species with aquatic larvae and terrestrial juveniles or adults, metamorphosis can also transfer biomass and nutrients from freshwater into surrounding terrestrial habitats, creating a direct ecological link between water and land.¹⁶
Many amphibians are also sensitive to environmental disturbance. Their permeable skin and, in many species, dependence on both aquatic and terrestrial habitats can make them vulnerable to changes in moisture, water quality, pollution, disease, and habitat availability. These characteristics have made amphibians widely used models and bioindicators in studies of environmental change.¹⁷
⌄
Sources & references
17 scientific sources used in this project
¹ Liedtke, H. C., Wiens, J. J. & Gomez-Mestre, I. (2022).
The evolution of reproductive modes and life cycles in amphibians.
Nature Communications, 13, 7039.
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34474-4.
² Paul, B., Sterner, Z. R., Buchholz, D. R., Shi, Y.-B. & Sachs, L. M. (2022).
Thyroid and Corticosteroid Signaling in Amphibian Metamorphosis.
Cells, 11(10), 1595.
DOI: 10.3390/cells11101595.
³ Dujsebayeva, T. N. & Arifulova, I. I. (2024).
The Development of Rana arvalis (Amphibia, Ranidae), with Attention to the Skin Texture and Timing of Metamorphosis Events.
Russian Journal of Herpetology, 31(2), 95–104.
DOI: 10.30906/1026-2296-2024-31-2-95-104.
⁴ Cortazar-Chinarro, M., Corral-Lopez, A., Lüdtke, D. U., Tegnér, F., Luquet, E. & Laurila, A. (2025).
Metamorphosis Reverses the Behavioral Phenotype in Rana arvalis Along a Latitudinal Gradient.
Ecology and Evolution, 15(8), e71945.
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.71945.
⁵ Handrigan, G. R. & Wassersug, R. J. (2007).
The anuran Bauplan: a review of the adaptive, developmental, and genetic underpinnings of frog and tadpole morphology.
Biological Reviews, 82(1), 1–25.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2006.00001.x.
⁶ Fabrezi, M., Goldberg, J. & Chuliver Pereyra, M. (2017).
Morphological Variation in Anuran Limbs: Constraints and Novelties.
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B, 328(6), 546–574.
DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22753.
⁷ Jørgensen, C. B. (2000).
Amphibian respiration and olfaction and their relationships: from Robert Townson (1794) to the present.
Biological Reviews, 75(3), 297–345.
DOI: 10.1017/S0006323100005491.
⁸ Schmidt-Ukaj, S., Gumpenberger, M., Posautz, A. & Strauss, V. (2022).
The Amphibian Heart.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 25(2), 367–382.
DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.01.002.
⁹ Frost, D. R. (2025).
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.2.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
¹⁰ Sztatecsny, M., Preininger, D., Freudmann, A., Loretto, M.-C., Maier, F. & Hödl, W. (2012).
Don’t get the blues: conspicuous nuptial colouration of male moor frogs (Rana arvalis) supports visual mate recognition
during scramble competition in large breeding aggregations.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 66, 1587–1593.
DOI: 10.1007/s00265-012-1412-6.
¹¹ Guayasamin, J. M., Castroviejo-Fisher, S., Trueb, L., Ayarzagüena, J., Rada, M. & Vilà, C. (2009).
Phylogenetic systematics of Glassfrogs (Amphibia: Centrolenidae) and their sister taxon Allophryne ruthveni.
Zootaxa, 2100(1), 1–97.
DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.2100.1.1.
¹² Barnett, J. B., Michalis, C., Anderson, H. M., McEwen, B. L., Yeager, J., Pruitt, J. N., Scott-Samuel, N. E. & Cuthill, I. C. (2020).
Imperfect transparency and camouflage in glass frogs.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(23), 12885–12890.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1919417117.
¹³ Lorioux-Chevalier, U., Chouteau, M. & Roland, A.-B. (2024).
The importance of reproductive isolation in driving diversification and speciation within Peruvian mimetic poison frogs (Dendrobatidae).
Scientific Reports, 14, 19803.
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70744-5.
¹⁴ Stuckert, A. M. M., Saporito, R. A., Venegas, P. J. & Summers, K. (2014).
Alkaloid defenses of co-mimics in a putative Müllerian mimetic radiation.
BMC Evolutionary Biology, 14, 76.
DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-14-76.
¹⁵ Wickramasingha, B., West, J., Bellanthudawa, B. K. A., Graziano, M. P. & Surasinghe, T. D. (2026).
The Multifaceted Importance of Amphibians: Ecological, Biomedical, and Socio-Economic Perspectives.
Biology, 15(1), 98.
DOI: 10.3390/biology15010098.
¹⁶ Yermokhin, M. V., Sushchik, N. N., Tabachishin, V. G., Kalacheva, G. S., Kolmakova, A. A. & Gladyshev, M. I. (2018).
Amphibia as a Vector of Transfer of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Aquatic to Terrestrial Ecosystems.
Doklady Biochemistry and Biophysics, 481(1), 195–197.
DOI: 10.1134/S160767291804004X.
¹⁷ Hopkins, W. A. (2007).
Amphibians as Models for Studying Environmental Change.
ILAR Journal, 48(3), 270–277.
DOI: 10.1093/ilar.48.3.270.
⌄
Sources & references
17 scientific sources used in this project
¹ Liedtke, H. C., Wiens, J. J. & Gomez-Mestre, I. (2022).
The evolution of reproductive modes and life cycles in amphibians.
Nature Communications, 13, 7039.
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34474-4.
² Paul, B., Sterner, Z. R., Buchholz, D. R., Shi, Y.-B. & Sachs, L. M. (2022).
Thyroid and Corticosteroid Signaling in Amphibian Metamorphosis.
Cells, 11(10), 1595.
DOI: 10.3390/cells11101595.
³ Dujsebayeva, T. N. & Arifulova, I. I. (2024).
The Development of Rana arvalis (Amphibia, Ranidae), with Attention to the Skin Texture and
Timing of Metamorphosis Events.
Russian Journal of Herpetology, 31(2), 95–104.
DOI: 10.30906/1026-2296-2024-31-2-95-104.
⁴ Cortazar-Chinarro, M., Corral-Lopez, A., Lüdtke, D. U., Tegnér, F., Luquet, E. & Laurila, A. (2025).
Metamorphosis Reverses the Behavioral Phenotype in Rana arvalis Along a Latitudinal Gradient.
Ecology and Evolution, 15(8), e71945.
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.71945.
⁵ Handrigan, G. R. & Wassersug, R. J. (2007).
The anuran Bauplan: a review of the adaptive, developmental, and genetic underpinnings
of frog and tadpole morphology.
Biological Reviews, 82(1), 1–25.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2006.00001.x.
⁶ Fabrezi, M., Goldberg, J. & Chuliver Pereyra, M. (2017).
Morphological Variation in Anuran Limbs: Constraints and Novelties.
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B, 328(6), 546–574.
DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22753.
⁷ Jørgensen, C. B. (2000).
Amphibian respiration and olfaction and their relationships: from Robert Townson (1794)
to the present.
Biological Reviews, 75(3), 297–345.
DOI: 10.1017/S0006323100005491.
⁸ Schmidt-Ukaj, S., Gumpenberger, M., Posautz, A. & Strauss, V. (2022).
The Amphibian Heart.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 25(2), 367–382.
DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.01.002.
⁹ Frost, D. R. (2025).
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.2.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
¹⁰ Sztatecsny, M., Preininger, D., Freudmann, A., Loretto, M.-C., Maier, F. & Hödl, W. (2012).
Don’t get the blues: conspicuous nuptial colouration of male moor frogs (Rana arvalis)
supports visual mate recognition during scramble competition in large breeding aggregations.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 66, 1587–1593.
DOI: 10.1007/s00265-012-1412-6.
¹¹ Guayasamin, J. M., Castroviejo-Fisher, S., Trueb, L., Ayarzagüena, J., Rada, M. & Vilà, C. (2009).
Phylogenetic systematics of Glassfrogs (Amphibia: Centrolenidae) and their sister taxon
Allophryne ruthveni.
Zootaxa, 2100(1), 1–97.
DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.2100.1.1.
¹² Barnett, J. B., Michalis, C., Anderson, H. M., McEwen, B. L., Yeager, J., Pruitt, J. N., Scott-Samuel, N. E. & Cuthill, I. C. (2020).
Imperfect transparency and camouflage in glass frogs.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(23), 12885–12890.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1919417117.
¹³ Lorioux-Chevalier, U., Chouteau, M. & Roland, A.-B. (2024).
The importance of reproductive isolation in driving diversification and speciation within Peruvian mimetic poison frogs (Dendrobatidae).
Scientific Reports, 14, 19803.
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70744-5.
¹⁴ Stuckert, A. M. M., Saporito, R. A., Venegas, P. J. & Summers, K. (2014).
Alkaloid defenses of co-mimics in a putative Müllerian mimetic radiation.
BMC Evolutionary Biology, 14, 76.
DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-14-76.
¹⁵ Wickramasingha, B., West, J., Bellanthudawa, B. K. A., Graziano, M. P. & Surasinghe, T. D. (2026).
The Multifaceted Importance of Amphibians: Ecological, Biomedical, and Socio-Economic Perspectives.
Biology, 15(1), 98.
DOI: 10.3390/biology15010098.
¹⁶ Yermokhin, M. V., Sushchik, N. N., Tabachishin, V. G., Kalacheva, G. S., Kolmakova, A. A. & Gladyshev, M. I. (2018).
Amphibia as a Vector of Transfer of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Aquatic to Terrestrial Ecosystems.
Doklady Biochemistry and Biophysics, 481(1), 195–197.
DOI: 10.1134/S160767291804004X.
¹⁷ Hopkins, W. A. (2007).
Amphibians as Models for Studying Environmental Change.
ILAR Journal, 48(3), 270–277.
DOI: 10.1093/ilar.48.3.270.
⌄
Sources & references
17 scientific sources used in this project
¹ Liedtke, H. C., Wiens, J. J. & Gomez-Mestre, I. (2022).
The evolution of reproductive modes and life cycles in amphibians.
Nature Communications, 13, 7039.
DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34474-4.
² Paul, B., Sterner, Z. R., Buchholz, D. R., Shi, Y.-B. & Sachs, L. M. (2022).
Thyroid and Corticosteroid Signaling in Amphibian Metamorphosis.
Cells, 11(10), 1595.
DOI: 10.3390/cells11101595.
³ Dujsebayeva, T. N. & Arifulova, I. I. (2024).
The Development of Rana arvalis (Amphibia, Ranidae), with Attention to the Skin Texture and Timing of Metamorphosis Events.
Russian Journal of Herpetology, 31(2), 95–104.
DOI: 10.30906/1026-2296-2024-31-2-95-104.
⁴ Cortazar-Chinarro, M., Corral-Lopez, A., Lüdtke, D. U., Tegnér, F., Luquet, E. & Laurila, A. (2025).
Metamorphosis Reverses the Behavioral Phenotype in Rana arvalis Along a Latitudinal Gradient.
Ecology and Evolution, 15(8), e71945.
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.71945.
⁵ Handrigan, G. R. & Wassersug, R. J. (2007).
The anuran Bauplan: a review of the adaptive, developmental, and genetic underpinnings of frog and tadpole morphology.
Biological Reviews, 82(1), 1–25.
DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185X.2006.00001.x.
⁶ Fabrezi, M., Goldberg, J. & Chuliver Pereyra, M. (2017).
Morphological Variation in Anuran Limbs: Constraints and Novelties.
Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B, 328(6), 546–574.
DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22753.
⁷ Jørgensen, C. B. (2000).
Amphibian respiration and olfaction and their relationships: from Robert Townson (1794) to the present.
Biological Reviews, 75(3), 297–345.
DOI: 10.1017/S0006323100005491.
⁸ Schmidt-Ukaj, S., Gumpenberger, M., Posautz, A. & Strauss, V. (2022).
The Amphibian Heart.
Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice, 25(2), 367–382.
DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2022.01.002.
⁹ Frost, D. R. (2025).
Amphibian Species of the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.2.
American Museum of Natural History, New York.
¹⁰ Sztatecsny, M., Preininger, D., Freudmann, A., Loretto, M.-C., Maier, F. & Hödl, W. (2012).
Don’t get the blues: conspicuous nuptial colouration of male moor frogs (Rana arvalis) supports visual mate recognition
during scramble competition in large breeding aggregations.
Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 66, 1587–1593.
DOI: 10.1007/s00265-012-1412-6.
¹¹ Guayasamin, J. M., Castroviejo-Fisher, S., Trueb, L., Ayarzagüena, J., Rada, M. & Vilà, C. (2009).
Phylogenetic systematics of Glassfrogs (Amphibia: Centrolenidae) and their sister taxon Allophryne ruthveni.
Zootaxa, 2100(1), 1–97.
DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.2100.1.1.
¹² Barnett, J. B., Michalis, C., Anderson, H. M., McEwen, B. L., Yeager, J., Pruitt, J. N., Scott-Samuel, N. E. & Cuthill, I. C. (2020).
Imperfect transparency and camouflage in glass frogs.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(23), 12885–12890.
DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1919417117.
¹³ Lorioux-Chevalier, U., Chouteau, M. & Roland, A.-B. (2024).
The importance of reproductive isolation in driving diversification and speciation within Peruvian mimetic poison frogs (Dendrobatidae).
Scientific Reports, 14, 19803.
DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70744-5.
¹⁴ Stuckert, A. M. M., Saporito, R. A., Venegas, P. J. & Summers, K. (2014).
Alkaloid defenses of co-mimics in a putative Müllerian mimetic radiation.
BMC Evolutionary Biology, 14, 76.
DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-14-76.
¹⁵ Wickramasingha, B., West, J., Bellanthudawa, B. K. A., Graziano, M. P. & Surasinghe, T. D. (2026).
The Multifaceted Importance of Amphibians: Ecological, Biomedical, and Socio-Economic Perspectives.
Biology, 15(1), 98.
DOI: 10.3390/biology15010098.
¹⁶ Yermokhin, M. V., Sushchik, N. N., Tabachishin, V. G., Kalacheva, G. S., Kolmakova, A. A. & Gladyshev, M. I. (2018).
Amphibia as a Vector of Transfer of Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Omega-3 Fatty Acids from Aquatic to Terrestrial Ecosystems.
Doklady Biochemistry and Biophysics, 481(1), 195–197.
DOI: 10.1134/S160767291804004X.
¹⁷ Hopkins, W. A. (2007).
Amphibians as Models for Studying Environmental Change.
ILAR Journal, 48(3), 270–277.
DOI: 10.1093/ilar.48.3.270.
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